Old Persian

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{{Infobox Language|name=Old Persian|nativename=|region=Ancient Iran|familycolor=Indo-European|fam2=[Indo-Iranian languages|fam3=Iranian languages|script=Old Persian cuneiform script|iso2=peo|iso3=peo-->

Old Persian is one of the two attested forms of Iranian languages. Old Persian appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets, seal (device)s of the Achaemenid dynasty era (c. 600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Egypt.

Relationship to other languages Old Persian is an Old Iranian language, part of the Southwest Iranian language group which is represented by Old Persian and its descendants Middle Persian and the modern Farsi dialects. As an Iranian Languages, Old Persian is a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages language family.

Young Avestan, one of the other attested Old Iranian languages, bears some similarity to the language used in the Old Persian inscriptions, while the older Avestan texts are closer to the Old Indic Sanskrit.

By the late Achaemenid period (4th c. CE), the inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III differ enough from the language of Darius' inscriptions to be called a "pre-Middle Persian," or "post-Old Persian." Inscriptions in Middle Persian (or Pahlavi) are known from the 1st century B.C.E. onwards. Middle Persian then evolved into the Persian language language.

Old Persian "presumably" has a Median language language substratum. The Median element is readily identifiable because it did not share in the developments that were peculiar to Old Persian. Median forms "are found only in personal or geographical names and some are typically from religious vocabulary and so could in principle also be influenced by Avestan." "Sometimes, both Median and Old Persian forms are found, which gave Old Persian a somewhat confusing and inconsistent look: 'horse,' for instance, is in Old Persian as both asa (OPers.) and aspa (Med.)."

Script Old Persian was written from left to right the syllabic Old Persian cuneiform script. The Old Persian cuneiform contains 36 signs representing vowels and consonants, 8 logograms, and 3 signs which can be combined to represent any numeral, although only a few numbers are actually attested in the inscriptions.

Phonology The following phonemes are expressed in the Old Persian script:

Vowels

Long:
Short:

Consonants{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"|-!| ! colspan="2"| Labial consonant! colspan="2"| Dental consonant/
Alveolar consonant! colspan="2"| Palatal consonant! colspan="2"| Velar consonant! colspan="2"| Glottal consonant|-! | Plosive consonant| style="border-right-width: 0;" | p || style="border-left-width: 0;" | b | style="border-right-width: 0;" | t || style="border-left-width: 0;" |d | style="border-right-width: 0;" | c || style="border-left-width: 0;" | j | style="border-right-width: 0;" | k || style="border-left-width: 0;" | g | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | |-!| Nasal consonant| style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | m | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | n | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | |-!| Fricative consonant| style="border-right-width: 0;" | f || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | θ || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | ç || style="border-left-width: 0;" || style="border-right-width: 0;" | x || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | h || style="border-left-width: 0;" | |-!| Sibilant consonant| style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | s || style="border-left-width: 0;" | z | style="border-right-width: 0;" | š || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | |-!| Rhotic consonant| style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | r | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | |-!| Approximant consonant| style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | v | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | l | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | y | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | | style="border-right-width: 0;" | || style="border-left-width: 0;" | |}

Grammar Nouns Old Persian stems:

a-stems (-a, -am, -ā)
i-stems (-iš, iy)
u- (and au-) stems (-uš, -uv)
consonantal stems (n, r, h)

{| class="wikitable"|-!rowspan="2"|!colspan="3"| -a!colspan="3"| -am!colspan="3"| -ā|-! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural|-| Nominative| -a || -ā || -ā, -āha || -am || -ā || -ā || -ā || -ā || -ā|-| Vocative| -ā || -ā || -ā || -am || -ā || -ā || -ā || -ā || -ā|-| Accusative| -am || -ā || -ā || -am || -ā || -ā || -ām || -ā || -ā|-| Instrumental| -ā || -aibiyā || -aibiš || -ā || -aibiyā || -aibiš || -āyā || -ābiyā || -ābiš|-| Dative| -ahyā, -ahya || -aibiyā || -aibiš || -ahyā, -ahya || -aibiyā || -aibiš || -āyā || -ābiyā || -ābiš|-| Ablative| -ā || -aibiyā || -aibiš || -ā || -aibiyā || -aibiš || -āyā || -ābiyā || -ābiš|-| Genitive| -ahyā, -ahya || -āyā || -ānām || -ahyā, -ahya || -āyā || -ānām || -āyā || -āyā || -ānām|-| Locative| -aiy || -āyā || -aišuvā || -aiy || -āyā || -aišuvā || -āyā || -āyā || -āšuvā|}

{| class="wikitable"|-!rowspan="2"|!colspan="3"| -iš!colspan="3"| -iy!colspan="3"| -uš!colspan="3"| -uv|-! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural|-| Nominative| -iš || -īy || -iya || -iy || -in || -īn || -uš || -ūv || -uva || -uv || -un || -ūn|-| Vocative| -i || -īy || -iya || -iy || -in || -īn || -u || -ūv || -uva || -uv || -un || -ūn|-| Accusative| -im || -īy || -iš || -iy || -in || -īn || -um || -ūv || -ūn || -uv || -un || -ūn|-| Instrumental| -auš || -ībiyā || -ībiš || -auš || -ībiyā || -ībiš || -auv || -ūbiyā || -ūbiš || -auv || -ūbiyā || -ūbiš|-| Dative| -aiš || -ībiyā || -ībiš || -aiš || -ībiyā || -ībiš || -auš || -ūbiyā || -ūbiš || -auš || -ūbiyā || -ūbiš|-| Ablative| -auš || -ībiyā || -ībiš || -auš || -ībiyā || -ībiš || -auv || -ūbiyā || -ūbiš || -auv || -ūbiyā || -ūbiš|-| Genitive| -aiš || -īyā || -īnām || -aiš || -īyā || -īnām || -auš || -ūvā || -ūnām || -auš || -ūvā || -ūnām|-| Locative| -auv || -īyā || -išuvā || -auv || -īyā || -išuvā || -āvā || -ūvā || -ušuvā || -āvā || -ūvā || -ušuvā|}

Adjectives are declinable in similar way.

Verbs Voices
Active, Middle (them. pres. -aiy-, -ataiy-), Passive (-ya-).

In Old Persian were used mostly the forms of first and third persons. Only Dual form used was ajīva'tam 'both lived'.

{| class="wikitable"|+ Present, Active|-!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|!Athematic!Thematic|-! 'be' !! 'bring'|-|rowspan="2"| Sg.|1.pers. || ahmiy || barāmiy|-|3.pers. || astiy || baratiy|-|rowspan="2"| Pl.| 1.pers. || ahmahiy || barāmahiy|-| 3.pers. || hatiy || baratiy|}

{| class="wikitable"|+ Imperfect, Active|-!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|!Athematic!Thematic|-! 'do, make' !! 'be, become'|-|rowspan="2"| Sg.|1.pers. || akunavam || abavam|-|3.pers. || akunauš || abava|-|rowspan="2"| Pl.|1.pers. || akumā || abavāmā|-|3.pers. || akunava || abava|}

{| class="wikitable"|+ Present participle|-!Active!Middle|-| -nt- || -amna-|}

{| class="wikitable"|+ Past participle|-| -ta-|}

{| class="wikitable"|+ Infinitive|-| -tanaiy|}

Lexicon {| class="wikitable"!Proto-Indo-Iranian ] || aspa || asb || asb || horse|-| *kāma || kāma || kām || kām || desire|-| *daiva || daiva ] || bāji || bāj || bāj || tribute|-| *bhrātr- || brātar || brādar || barādar || brother|-| *bhumi || būmi || būm || būm || region, land|-| *martya || martya || mard || mard || man|-| *māsa || māha || māh || māh || moon, month|-| *vāsara || vāhara || Bahār || bahār || spring|-| || stūnā || stūn || sotūn || column|-| || šiyāta|| šhād || šhād || happiness|-| *arta || asha || ard || ord || truth|-| *draugh- || druj || drōgh || dorōgh || lie|-|}

See also

References and Bibliography

: 238-245
: 56–85